Dr. Peat has responded to Mike's question below on r-s and I thought it would be
good to
also post this here FYI:
To: Brady Barrows <director@...
Subject: Re: post at rosacea support about an article you wrote
Yes, I'd be glad to answer his questions about the polyunsaturated fats.
Although that article, "Infant eyes, aging eyes, and excitable tissues," wasn't
about
rosacea, several of the studies it cited discuss the toxicity of the
polyunsaturated fatty
acids to the mitochondria, and since I think defects in mitochondrial
respiration cause
rosacea, they would be relevant. Besides directly inhibiting mitochondrial
respiration by
interacting with enzymes such as cytochrome oxidase, they have several indirect
effects
that work in the same direction, for example, the number of double bonds in
fatty acids
corresponds to their ability to inhibit the functions of the thyroid hormone,
and thyroid
function powerfully regulates mitochondrial respiration, especially the
cytochrome
oxidase.When fish oil or linseed oil is used as varnish, sunlight accelerates
the hardening
process by cross-linking the oil molecules. In living cells, the presence of
light-activated
catalysts, such as heme, riboflavin, tryptophan, and folic acid, and the metals
such as iron
that interact with them, increases the susceptibility of the unsaturated fats to
oxidation.
The highly unsaturated fatty acids produce some characteristic toxins, including
acrolein
and the isoprostanes, when they break down.
Exp Eye Res. 1995 Mar;60(3):307-16. Effect of dietary fat on the response of the
rat retina
to chronic and acutelight stress. Koutz CA, Wiegand RD, Rapp LM, Anderson RE.
Cullen Eye
Institute, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA. We designed an
experiment
to study the role of light history and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) on the
susceptibility of the albino rat retina to light damage. Albino rats were born
to dams that
had been kept in either 1 lx or 250 lx cyclic light for 0-4 days prior to
delivery and fed one
of three diets containing either 10% (by weight) hydrogenated coconut oil (COC,
no n-3
nor n-6 fatty acids), safflower oil (SAF, high n-6, < 0.1% n-3 fatty acids), or
linseed oil
(LIN, high n-3, low n-6 fatty acids). After weaning, the rats were maintained in
the same
light environment and fed the same diets for 9 weeks, at which time some were
killed and
their retinas processed for morphometric analysis. Animals raised in bright
cyclic light had
shorter ROS lengths and thinner outer nuclear layers (ONL) than rats raised in
dim cyclic
light. The LIN animals had a thinner ONL than animals of the SAF or COC groups.
Rats
from each diet and light rearing groups were exposed to constant illumination of
2000 lx
for 24 hr, after which they and non-exposed controls were placed in 1 lx cyclic
light for 10
days and analysed for changes in ONL thickness. In the 250 lx (bright; B)
groups, there
was no effect of acute light stress on ONL thickness, although both control and
stressed
LIN animals had a thinner ONL than the corresponding COC and SAF groups.
However, in
the rats raised in 1 lx cyclic light, acute stress resulted in significant
retinal damage (i.e.
decrease in ONL thickness) in the three diet groups combined. The superior
region was
damaged the most and the severity was dependent on diet, as evidenced by the LIN
group
having a greater reduction in ONL thickness than the SAF group after light
stress. From
these results we conclude that rats on diets high in n-3 fatty acids are more
susceptible to
photoreceptor cell loss than animals fed n-6 or no polyunsaturated fatty acids
when raised
in dim cyclic light. These results show that both diet and light history play a
role in the
susceptibility of the retina to acute and chronic effects of light and suggest a
role for lipid
peroxidation in retinal light damage.
Prog Clin Biol Res 1989;312:95-112. The metabolism of omega-3 polyunsaturated
fatty
acids in the eye: the possible role of docosahexaenoic acid and docosanoids in
retinal
physiology and ocular pathology. Bazan NG.
J Neurochem 1988 Apr;50(4):1185-93. Induction of intracellular superoxide
radical
formation by arachidonic acid and by polyunsaturated fatty acids in primary
astrocytic
cultures. Chan PH, Chen SF, Yu AC.
Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 1993 Jul;231(7):416-23. Inhibition of
cytochrome
oxidase and blue-light damage in rat retina. Chen E. St. Erik's Eye Hospital,
Karolinska
Institute, Stockholm, Sweden. The activity of cytochrome oxidase, outer nuclear
layer
thickness, and edema were quantitatively evaluated in the blue-light exposed rat
retina.
Dark-adapted or cyclic-light reared rats were exposed to blue light with a
retinal dose of
380 kJ/m2. Immediately, 1, 2, and 3 day(s) after exposure, the retinas of six
rats from
each adaptation group were examined. There was no difference between the
dark-adapted
and cyclic-light reared rats. Immediately after light exposure, cytochrome
oxidase activity
decreased. The activity in the inner segments remained low at day 1, while
severe edema
was observed in the inner and outer segments. The outer nuclear layer thickness
decreased 1-3 days after exposure. The blue-light exposure inhibited cytochrome
oxidase
activity and caused retinal injury. Similarity of the injury process in the
dark-adapted and
cyclic-light reared retinas suggests that rhodopsin was not involved. The
inhibition of
cytochrome oxidase could be a cause of retinal damage.
Acta Ophthalmol Suppl 1993;(208):1-50. Inhibition of enzymes by short-wave
optical
radiation and its effect on the retina. Chen E. Eye Laboratory, St. Erik's Eye
Hospital,
Stockholm, Sweden. "Exposure to short-wave optical radiation is a potential
hazard for
vision. In the present study, blue-light damage is studied in rat retina." "Blue
light
inhibited cytochrome oxidase at a retinal dose of about 110 kJ/m2. This
inhibition was
reversible, and is probably related to the light regulation of retinal
metabolism. At a retinal
dose of about 380 kJ/m2, the inhibition of cytochrome oxidase was followed
consecutively
by a probable redistribution of chlorine and potassium in the inner and outer
segments,
damage to the mitochondria in the inner segments, edema in the inner and outer
segments, and progressive degeneration of photoreceptor cells. Dark adaptation
did not
increase the blue-light retinal injury. These findings support the hypothesis
that inhibition
of cytochrome oxidase is one of the causes of blue-light retinal damage."
J Neurosci Res 1988;19(1):94-100. Effects of arachidonic acid on respiratory
activities in
isolated brain mitochondria. Hillered L, Chan PH.
J Neurosci Res 1988 Aug;20(4):451-6. Role of arachidonic acid and other free
fatty acids
in mitochondrial dysfunction in brain ischemia. Hillered L, Chan PH.
J Neurosci Res 1989 Oct;24(2):247-50. Brain mitochondrial swelling induced by
arachidonic acid and other long chain free fatty acids. Hillered L, Chan PH.
Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1996 Oct;37(11):2243-57. Retinal light damage in rats
with
altered levels of rod outer segment docosahexaenoate. Organisciak DT, Darrow RM,
Jiang
YL, Blanks JC. PURPOSE: To compare retinal light damage in rats with either
normal or
reduced levels of rod outer segment (ROS) docosahexaenoic acid. METHODS:
Weanling
male albino rats were maintained in a weak cyclic light environment and fed
either a
nonpurified control diet or a purified diet deficient in the linolenic acid
precursor of
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Half the rats on the deficient diet were given
linseed oil,
containing more than 50 mol% linolenic acid, once a week to maintain ROS DHA at
near
normal levels. Diets and linseed oil supplementation were continued for 7 to 12
weeks. To
replenish DHA in their ROS, some 10-week-old rats on the deficient diet were
given
linseed oil three times a week for up to 3 additional weeks. Groups of animals
were killed
at various times for ROS fatty acid determinations or were exposed to intense
green light
using intermittent or hyperthermic light treatments. The extent of retinal light
damage
was determined biochemically by rhodopsin or photoreceptor cell DNA measurements
2
weeks after exposure and morphologically by light and electron microscopy at
various
times after light treatment. RESULTS: Rats maintained for 7 to 12 weeks on the
linolenic
acid-deficient diet had significantly lower levels of DHA and significantly
higher levels of
n-6 docosapentaenoic acid (22:5n-6) in their ROS than deficient-diet animals
supplemented once a week with linseed oil or those fed the nonpurified control
diet. As
determined by rhodopsin levels and photoreceptor cell DNA measurements,
deficient diet
rats exhibited protection against retinal damage from either intermittent or
hyperthermic
light exposure. However, the unsaturated fatty acid content of ROS from all
three dietary
groups was the same and greater than 60 mol%. In 10 week-old deficient-diet rats
given
linseed oil three times a week, ROS DHA was unchanged for the first 10 days,
whereas
22:5n-6 levels declined by 50%. After 3 weeks of treatment with linseed oil, ROS
DHA and
22:5n-6 were nearly the same as in rats supplemented with linseed oil from
weaning. The
time course of susceptibility to retinal light damage, however, was different.
Hyperthermic
light damage in rats given linseed oil for only 2 days was the same as for rats
always fed
the deficient diet. Six days after the start of linseed oil treatment, retinal
light damage was
the same as in rats given the linseed oil supplement from weaning. Morphologic
alterations in ROS of linseed oil-supplemented rats immediately after
intermittent light
exposure were more extensive than in either the deficient-diet animals or those
fed the
control diet. The deficient-diet rats also exhibited better preservation of
photoreceptor
cell nuclei and structure 2 weeks after exposure. CONCLUSIONS: Rats fed a diet
deficient
in the linolenic acid precursor of DHA are protected against experimental
retinal light
damage. The relationship between retinal light damage and ROS lipids does not
depend on
the total unsaturated fatty acid content of ROS; the damage appears to be
related to the
relative levels of DHA and 22:5n-6.
Mech Ageing Dev 2000 Jan 10;112(3):169-83. Double bond content of phospholipids
and
lipid peroxidation negatively correlate with maximum longevity in the heart of
mammals.
Pamplona R, Portero-Otin M, Ruiz C, Gredilla R, Herrero A, Barja G.
Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2001 Feb;64(2):75-80. Comparative
studies on
lipid peroxidation of microsomes and mitochondria obtained from different rat
tissues:
effect of retinyl palmitate. Piergiacomi VA, Palacios A, Catala A.
Prog Clin Biol Res 1989;312:229-49. Inhibitors of the arachidonic acid cascade
in the
management of ocular inflammation. Srinivasan BD, Kulkarni PS.
J Nutr 2000 Dec;130(12):3028-33. Polyunsaturated (n-3) fatty acids susceptible
to
peroxidation are increased in plasma and tissue lipids of rats fed
docosahexaenoic acid-
containing oils. Song JH, Fujimoto K, Miyazawa T. "Thus, high incorporation of
(n-3) fatty
acids (mainly DHA) into plasma and tissue lipids due to DHA-containing oil
ingestion may
undesirably affect tissues by enhancing susceptibility of membranes to lipid
peroxidation
and by disrupting the antioxidant system."
J Hypertens Suppl 1985 Dec;3 Suppl 3:S107-9. Seasonal variation in the
development of
stress-induced systolic hypertension in the rat. Weinstock M, Blotnick S, Segal
M.
"Seasonal variation in blood pressure in human hypertensives prompted us to
investigate
whether such a phenomenon also occurs in rats made hypertensive by environmental
stress." "Systolic pressure increased by 14-25 mmHg after 6-8 weeks of stress
from
October to January. Artificial environmental light for 15 h prevented
development of
hypertension by stress, which could also be reversed by acute administration of
propranolol." "Hypertensive rats had significantly greater relative heart and
adrenal
weights. This phenomenon can be explained by amplification of sympathetic
pressor
activity by stress hormones, adrenaline, corticosterone and prolactin, under the
influence
of melatonin."
J Neurochem 1986 Oct;47(4):1181-9. Effects of arachidonic acid on glutamate and
gamma-aminobutyric acid uptake in primary cultures of rat cerebral cortical
astrocytes
and neurons. Yu AC, Chan PH, Fishman RA.
Comp Biochem Physiol A. 1989;94(2):273-6.
The effects of essential fatty acid deficiency on brown adipose tissue activity
in rats
maintained at thermal neutrality.
Yazbeck J, Goubern M, Senault C, Chapey MF, Portet R. Laboratoire d'Adaptation
Energetique a l'Environnement, College de France, Paris. 1. The consequences of
essential
fatty acid (EFA) deficiency on the resting metabolism, food efficiency and brown
adipose
tissue (BAT) thermogenic activity were examined in rats maintained at thermal
neutrality
(28 C). 2. Weanling maleLong-Evans rats were fed a hypolipidic semi-purified
diet (control
diet: 2% sunflower oil; EFA-deficient diet: 2% hydrogenated coconut oil) for 9
weeks. 3.
They were kept at 28 C
for the last 5 weeks. Compared to controls, in EFA-deficient rats the growth
shortfall
reached 21% at killing. 4. As food intake was the same in EFA-deficient and
control rats,
food efficiency was thus decreased by 40%. 5. Resting metabolism expressed per
surface
unit was 15% increased. 6. Non-renal water loss was increased by 88%. 7. BAT
weight was
28% decreased but total and mitochondrial proteins were not modified. 8. Heat
production
capacity, tested by GDP binding per BAT was 69% increased in BAT of deficient
rats. 9. The
stimulation of BAT was established by two other tests: GDP inhibition of
mitochondrial O2
consumption and swelling of mitochondria. 10. It is suggested that the observed
enhancement of resting metabolism in EFA-deficient rats is, in part, due to an
activation of
heat production in BAT.
Eur J Biochem. 1983 Dec 1;137(1-2):113-8. NADH oxidation in submitochondrial
particles
protects respiratory chain activity against damage by adriamycin-Fe3+. Demant
EJ.
Oxidative decomposition of polyunsaturated fatty acid moieties of membrane lipid
in pig
heart submitochondrial particles, as initiated by ferric ion complexes of the
antineoplastic
drug adriamycin and concomitant inactivation of oxidase activities, is
counteracted by
EDTA, low oxygen pressure, a phenolic antioxidant and NADH oxidation through the
respiratory chain but not by scavengers of reactive oxygen species. Protection
by NADH is
strengthened by removal of cytochrome c from the
submitochondrial particles and by antimycin A but abolished by rotenone.
Inhibition of
cytochrome c oxidase activity by the adriamycin-Fe3+ complex is reversible and
activity is
recovered upon cholate solubilization of the particles. ADP inhibits binding of
the complex
to the submitochondrial particles and protects both cytochrome c oxidase
activity and
membrane lipid. The results are discussed in relation to the possible role of
mitochondrial
function in protection against free-radical-mediated effects of adriamycin.
Free Radic Biol Med. 1999 Jul;27(1-2):51-9. Arachidonic acid interaction with
the
mitochondrial electron transport chain
promotes reactive oxygen species generation. Cocco T, Di Paola M, Papa S,
Lorusso M.
Institute of Medical Biochemistry and Chemistry, University of Bari, Italy. A
study has been
carried out on the interaction of arachidonic acid and other long chain free
fatty acids with
bovine heart mitochondria. It is shown that arachidonic acid causes an
uncoupling effect
under state 4 respiration of intact mitochondria as well as a marked inhibition
of
uncoupled respiration. While, under our conditions, the uncoupling effect is
independent
of the fatty acid species considered, the inhibition is stronger for unsaturated
acids.
Experiments carried out with mitochondrial particles indicated that the
arachidonic acid
dependent decrease of the respiratory activity is caused by a selective
inhibition of
Complex I and III. It is also shown that arachidonic acid causes a remarkable
increase of
hydrogen peroxide production when added to mitochondria respiring with either
pyruvate
+malate or succinate as substrate. The production of reactive oxygen species
(ROS) at the
coupling site II was almost double than that at site I. The results obtained are
discussed
with regard to the impairment of the mitochondrial respiratory activity as
occurring during
the heart ischemia/reperfusion process.
Arch Biochem Biophys. 1991 Aug 15;289(1):33-8. A possible mechanism of
mitochondrial
dysfunction during cerebral ischemia: inhibition of mitochondrial respiration
activity by
arachidonic acid. Takeuchi Y, Morii H, Tamura M, Hayaishi O, Watanabe Y.
Department of
Neuroscience, Osaka Bioscience Institute, Japan. The dramatic increase in the
arachidonic
acid (AA) level in the brain is a well-known molecular event during cerebral
ischemia. As
mitochondria are known to be one possible site of the cell damage, the effects
of AA on
the respiratory activity of rat brain mitochondria were investigated in vitro
using an
oxygen electrode. In NAD-linked respiration, respiratory control ratio was
decreased
significantly by AA, with an IC50 of 6.0 microM. AA had the dual effect on
mitochondrial
respiration, a decrease in state 3 and uncoupled state and an increase in state
4 (i.e.,
uncoupling) as reported by Hillered and Chan (J. Neurosci. Res. 19, 94-100,
1988).
Furthermore, we found that other unsaturated long-chain free fatty acids
(C18:1-C18:3,
C20:1-C20:5) also showed such a dual effect. Cyclooxygenase metabolites of AA
such as
prostaglandins (D2, E2, F2 alpha, E1) and thromboxane B2, and lipoxygenase
metabolites
such as leukotrienes (D4, B4) and 5- or 12-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid had
no
significant effect. The inhibition of the uncoupled state by AA was more marked
in NAD-
linked than that in FAD-linked respiration, while the degree of uncoupling by AA
were the
same in both respirations. In spectrophotometrical measurement, the reduction of
cytochromes and flavo-protein was markedly inhibited by AA in NAD-linked
respiration,
but not in the FAD-linked one. In addition, the activity of cytochrome c oxidase
was
scarcely inhibited by AA. These data suggest that AA itself, not its
metabolites, may inhibit
mitochondrial ATP production during brain ischemia and that AA may act on the
site(s)
closely related to NAD-linked respiration, but not the FAD-linked one, in
addition to its
uncoupling effect.
Atherosclerosis. 2001 Mar;155(1):9-18. Enhanced level of n-3 fatty acid in
membrane
phospholipids induces lipid peroxidation in rats fed dietary docosahexaenoic
acid oil.
Song JH, Miyazawa T. Department of Applied Biological Chemistry, Faculty of
Agriculture,
Tohoku University, 981-8555, Sendai, Japan. The effect of dietary
docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA, 22:6n-3) oil with different lipid types on lipid peroxidation was studied
in rats. Each
group of male Sprague-Dawley rats was pair fed 15% (w/w) of either
DHA-triglycerides
(DHA-TG), DHA-ethyl esters (DHA-EE) or DHA-phospholipids (DHA-PL) for up to 3
weeks.
The palm oil (supplemented with 20% soybean oil) diet without DHA was fed as the
control. Dietary DHA oils lowered plasma triglyceride concentrations in rats fed
DHA-TG
(by 30%), DHA-EE (by 45%) and DHA-PL (by 27%), compared to control. The
incorporation
of dietary DHA into plasma and liver phospholipids was more pronounced in the
DHA-TG
and DHA-EE group than in the DHA-PL group. However, DHA oil intake negatively
influenced lipid peroxidation in both plasma and liver. Phospholipid
peroxidation in
plasma and liver was significantly higher than control in rats fed DHA-TG or
DHA-EE, but
not DHA-PL. These results are consistent with increased thiobarbituric acid
reactive
substances (TBARS) and decreased alpha-tocopherol levels in plasma and liver. In
addition,
liver microsomes from rats of each group were exposed to a mixture of chelated
iron (Fe(3
+)/ADP) and NADPH to determine the rate of peroxidative damage. During NADPH-
dependent peroxidation of microsomes, the accumulation of phospholipid
hydroperoxides, as well as TBARS, were elevated and alpha-tocopherol levels were
significantly exhausted in DHA-TG and DHA-EE groups. During microsomal lipid
peroxidation, there was a greater loss of n-3 fatty acids (mainly DHA) than of
n-6 fatty
acids, including arachidonic acid (20:4n-6). These results indicate that
polyunsaturation of
n-3 fatty acids is the most important target for lipid peroxidation. This
suggests that the
ingestion of large amounts of DHA oil enhances lipid peroxidation in the target
membranes where greater amounts of n-3 fatty acids are incorporated, thereby
increasing
the peroxidizability and possibly accelerating the atherosclerotic process.
Atherosclerosis. 1996 Apr 5;121(2):275-83.
Effect of dietary fish oil supplementation on peroxidation of serum lipids in
patients with
non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus.
McGrath LT, Brennan GM, Donnelly JP, Johnston GD, Hayes JR, McVeigh GE.
Department of
Therapeutics and Pharmacology, The Queen's University of Belfast, Belfast, UK.
Lipid
peroxidation may be important inthe development of cardiovascular disease, a
common
cause of mortality and morbidity in non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus
(NIDDM). We
assessed the degree of lipid peroxidation by measuring plasma malondialdehyde,
as
thiobarbituric acid reacting substances (TBARS), in 23 non-insulin diabetic
patients.
Plasma levels of standardised alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E), lipid content of
whole plasma
and lipoprotein fractions, glycosylated haemoglobin, glycosylated low density
lipoprotein
(LDL) and fasting blood glucose were also measured. On completion of the
baseline
studies patients randomly received either fish oil or matching olive oil
capsules in a double
blind crossover fashion for 6 weeks followed by a 6 week washout period and a
final 6
week treatment phase. Studies, identical to the initial baseline studies, were
performed at
the end of the of the active treatment periods at 6 and 18 weeks. Treatment with
olive oil
did not change levels of TBARS, vitamin E or indices of glycaemic control
compared with
baseline. Total cholesterol and triglyceride (TG) content of plasma and
lipoprotein
fractions were not significantly altered. Treatment with fish oil resulted in
elevation of
TBARS (P < 0.001) and reduction of vitamin E (P < 0.01) compared with baseline
and olive
oil treatment. Plasma cholesterol was unchanged. A reduction in plasma TG
compared with
baseline occurred but failed to reach significance (P =0.07). Changes in apo B
containing
lipoproteins induced by fish oil failed to reach significance. No significant
changes were
observed in concentration or composition of high density lipoprotein (HDL). Fish
oil
treatment showed no change in glycaemic control as assessed by glycosylated
haemoglobin and LDL although a rise in fasting blood glucose just failed to
reach
significance (P = 0.06). Lipid peroxidation in NIDDM can be exacerbated by
dietary fish oil.
This potentially adverse reaction may limit the therapeutic use of fish oils in
such patients.
Clinical Trial
Randomized Controlled Trial
Raymond Peat, Ph.D.